Muslim+Empires

Notes pg. 459-466

The Ottomans: From Fronteir Warriors to Empire Builders

S
 * main: Janissaries were created and made up a part of the population of teenage boys...these boys were given opportunities to advance in life. the Janissaries became vital to ottoman success.
 * The Ottomans built an empire on the Mediterranean that rivaled the Abbasids; in warfae, architechture, and engineering they carried Islamic civilization to new levels.
 * the collapse of Seljuk Turkic kingdom of Rum in Asia Minor after the invasioin of Mongols in 1243, opened the way for the Ottomans to seize power.
 * Ottomans- Turkic people who fled the Mongold or were in search of easy booty
 * empire based in Anatolia
 * by 1350s, Ottomans had advanced from Asia Minor to Europe and many Balkans had been added to the Ottomans empire
 * ottomans conquered Constantinople
 * Mahmad II- Ottoman sultan led army to assault the triple ring of land walls that had protected the city for centuries.
 * empire spread through the balkans into hungary and europe and around the black and red seas
 * formidable naval power in the Mediterranean
 * ottomans became protectors of Islamic heartlands and the scourge of Christian Europe
 * remained powerful force in european politics until late 19th century
 * military leaders played a huge part in dominant rule in the ottoman state...later became the warrior aristocracy and were granted control over and peasants produced in annexed areas for the support of their households and military retainers.
 * the social status were dominant to the warrior class, janisseries and religious order...but the warrior class gained much power and influence during this time while the janissaries expanded due to the parents giving their teenage sons up for the opportunities of a better education.

A State Geared to Warfare

E
 * main: the economy of the empire was geared to warfare and expansion and military leaders played a huge part in the ottoman state.
 * strong turkic calvary (responsible for many ottoman conquests) developed into warrior aristocracy
 * warriors vied with religious leaders and administrators drawn from other social groups for control of expanding ottoman bureaucracy
 * Janissaries- troops that made up infantry divisions that were increasingly dominating the imperial armies
 * janissaries included mostly teenaged boys and some parents willingly handed over their boys to ottoman recruiters b/c of great opportunities for advancement
 * boys were converted to Islam and extensively schooled ...some went to serve in the palace but most became janissaries
 * janissaries controlled firearms and srtillery that became vital to ottoman success in warfare with Christian and Muslim adversaries....most powerful part on ottoman military machine
 * tried to translate military service into political influence
 * by 15th cent. they were allowed to depose sultans and decide which of the dying rulers' sons would get the power
 * trade built up the economy with constantinople which offered products from other nations and having travelors from other parts of the world

The Sultans and Their Court

P
 * main: the ottoman rulers were mainly monarchs but even the most powerful sultan mantained his position by playing factions of the warrior elite off each other and pitting the warriors as a whole against janissaries and other groups.
 * some ottoman sultans were very capable rulers
 * ottoman conquest often meant effective administration and tax relief for people of areas annexed to the empire
 * vizier- overall head of imperial administration...often hekd more real power than the sultan
 * ottomans suffered greatly because they inhereted islamic principles of political succession that remained vague and contested
 * death of a sultan could lead to protracted warfare among his sons
 * the political aspects of the ottoman buraucracy was fought for control between the classes of warrior and religion but the janissaries later gained control of political influence in the courth which meant determining the throne and such

Constatinople Restored and the Flowering of Ottoman Culture

I
 * main: the ottomans' ancient and cosmopolitan capital at constatinople richly combined the disparate elements of their extensive territory...ottomans had culture from europe, africa, and asia and differed from one province to the next in social arrangements, artistic production, and physical appearance.
 * aqueducts were built from surrounding hills to supply the growing population wuth water, markets were reopened, and the city's defense were repaired
 * new cathedrals and churches were built
 * each sultan who ruled after Mehmed strove to be remembered for his efforts to beautify the capital
 * sultans also built masions, rest houses, religious schools, and hospitals
 * great bazaars were filled with merchants from all over the world b/c they carried different spices and goods
 * coffeehouses were found throughout the city...men gossiped and got news etc.
 * coffeehouses used also for poets to read their works out loud and for people to debate about politics
 * merchant and artisan classes were big
 * regulated commercial exchanges and handicraft production
 * artisans organized into guilds
 * turkish language became preferred for ottoman bureaucracy
 * ottoman empire left legacy in poetry, ceramics, caroet manufacturing, and mostly architecture

The Problem of Ottoman Decline

R
 * main: the ottomans were able to expand vigorously and defended themselves against enemies and lasted longer than any other empire in human history but declined because of internal revolts and periodic conflicts with powerful foreign rivals.
 * too large to be mantained
 * it was built on war and steady territorial expansion, as possibilities of conquests ran out, land became lost to christian and muslim enemies
 * decline in effectiveness of administrative system was signaled by rapid growth of corruption among ottoman officials
 * peasant uprisings and flight led to the abandonement of cultivated lands and in social dislocations that drained resources of the empire
 * possible successors to the throne were kept like hostages in special sections of the palace where they remained until one of them reached the throne
 * this produced monarchs less prepared to to rule
 * future rulers were linked to drinks, drugs, and were incompetent to rule
 * civil strife increased and discipline and leadership of amies on which the empire depended on for survival deteriorated

Military Reverses and the Ottoman Retreat

I
 * main: the ottomans had made very effective use of their artillery and firearms in building their empire but their reliance on huge guns and the janissaries' determination to block all military changes that might jeapordize the poer they had gained throughout the state, caused the ottomans to fall farther behind their european rivals.
 * ottoman losses on the battlefield increased rapidly with the widespread introduction of light artillery weapons in europe
 * portuguese naval victories in the indian ocean revealed the decline of the ottoman galley fleets and mediterranean-style warships
 * large amounts of silver flowed into the ottomans' lands from mines worked by native american laborers in the spanish empire
 * with the scientific, technological, and commercial transformations occuring in europe, the ottomans were falling behind their christian rivals
 * the ottomans didnt reform to western-style transformations b/c they didnt think it was the future so they fell behind and failed to move on with their empire

T
 * main: not many technological advancements were made but new ways of building churches and cathedrals were invented
 * new cathedrals/ churches built
 * warship developments were made

Notes pg. 473-479

The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India

E
 * main: Mughal Empire became one of the major overseas destinations for European traders.
 * under the Mughals, Islam reached the peak of its influence as a political and culture force in south asian history, a blend of Hindu and Islamic civilizations produced some of the world's greatest architecture and art.
 * Babur- founder of Mughals...descendant from Mongols
 * Babur's motives for conquest had little to do with religious fervor
 * conquered india but wanted to conquer the place of his central asian birthplace
 * Babur was a great leader, he fought alongside his troops and was a great military strategists...also was fine musician and developed a taste for the arts as he conquered more land
 * he failed to reform the ineffective Lodi bureaucracy that might've solidified the mughals' hold on the empires they had conquered
 * Humayan- son of Babur that inhereted the kingdom after babur's death at 48
 * by 1540, his army shattered and humayan was forced to flee to persia
 * in 1545, humayan lauched a series of campaigns into india that restored mughal rule to the northern plains by 1556
 * he died days after entering Delhi in triumph
 * the location was a major spot for trade
 * they had european and asia surrounding them...they traded for indian goods like textiles
 * clothes prices dropped b/c of popularity
 * the clothes proved supperior to european design...and easier to wash

Akbar and the Basis for a Lasting Empire

P
 * main: Humayan's son, Akbar was left with the starting empire at 13 years old but proved to be the greatest leader of all history, and shattered rivals' hopes of taking over his empire.
 * akbar had a vision of empire and sense of mission that hinged on uniting india under his rule
 * oversaw the building of the military and administrative backbone of the mughal empire
 * patronized the arts and entered into complex religious and philosophical discussions with learned scholars from throughout Muslim, Christian, and Hindu worlds
 * was illiterate but formed his own universalistic religion
 * became educated by having others read out loud to him
 * akbar's armies greatly expanded the empire into noth and central india
 * pursured policy of reconciliation and coopersation with hindu princes and hindu population of his realm
 * abolished jizya- head tax
 * promoted hindus to the highest ranks of the govt.
 * Din-i-Ilahi- new faith blended of common faiths akbar was familiar in...he believed could unite his hindu and muslim subjects
 * the court and central bureaucracy were supported by revenues drawn from tributes paid bu military retainers and from taxes on lands set aside for the support of imperial household
 * control and welfare of the village left on hands of military retainer of the dynasty and local power brokers
 * there was one ruler and administration but left some regional rulers in charge

Social Reform and Social Change

S
 * main: Beyond the public works typically favored by able Muslim rulers, Akbar sought to improve the calender, establish living quarters for the large population of beggars and vegabonds in large cities, and to regulate the consumption of alcohol.
 * tried to better womens positions by encouraging widow remarriage, outlawing chils marriages and prohibiting sati- burning of high-caste hindu women on the husband's funeral pyres.
 * tried to provide relief for women trapped in purdah (seclusion of their homes) by encouraging merchants of delhi and other cities to set aside special market days for women only
 * Hindu's status was higher
 * Akbar tried to promote wider social changes--- reestablishing places for beggarsand decreased the amount that people drank
 * womens position was biggest change

Mughal Splendor and Early European Contacts

I
 * main: Akbar died lonely and discouraged because his religion had been rejected by both muslims and Hindus, faced revolts by his sons who were eager for the throne, though he had many successes in prosperity and civil peace in his reign
 * neither successor, Jahangir or Shah Jahan added much territory to the empire
 * in invention and the sciences, india had fallen behind western europe in most areas
 * by late 17th century, india had become one of the major overseas destination for european traders
 * indian cotton and cloth important in western europe
 * indian textiles won a large market among working and middle classes in Britain and elsewhere in Europe
 * Aurangzeb- mughal emperor who secceeded Shah Jahan, scolded his daughter for revelaing so much of her body though she had on three layers of clothing
 * madras cloth still popular today

Artistic Achievement in Mughal era

I
 * main: successors after Akbar continued the policy of tolerance toward the hindu majority and retained most of the alliances with hindu princes and local leaders
 * fought their wars and administrated the empire the same way Akbar had
 * the successors didnt want to expand the empire or interested in politics...wanted to live a pleasureful life
 * Jahangir and Shah Jahan were remembered as two of the greatest patrons of arts in human history
 * Taj Mahal- became a symbol for india...very beautiful and unique architecture
 * fuses islamic domes, arches, and minarets and the balance between them with the hindu love of ornament
 * gleamin white marble and semiprecious stones arranged in floral and geometric patterns

Court Politics and the Position of Elite nad Ordinary Women

P
 * main:strong willed wives took advantage of their husbands' neglect of politics to win positions of power and influence at the mughal court.
 * Nur Jahan- Jahangir's wife, amassed power as he became more addicted to wine and opium...packed the court with able male relatives and her faction dominated the empire for most of the years Jahangir ruled
 * Nur was a big spender but not only on luxury, she became a major patron of much-needed charities in major cities
 * she died giving birth to her 19th child
 * Mumtaz mahal- Shah Jahan's consort...remembered for the love and devotion Shah Jahan bestowed upon her
 * Shah Jahan was buried next to his wife in the taj Mahal but her tomb is much bigger and more beautiful than his
 * child marriage grew more popular and age limit was lowered
 * widow remarriage declined
 * seclusion more enforced for upper-caste women
 * muslim women rarely ventured out of their homes unveiled and if they did they risked physical abuse and verbal abuse
 * sati spread
 * only births of sons were celebrated

The Beginnings of Imperial Decline

P
 * main:for decades, the need for essential administrative, military, and social reforms had been ignored which became the basis for the decline of the Mughals
 * mughal bureaucracy had grown bloated and corrupt
 * army was equally bloated and backward in weaponry and tactics
 * peasants and urban workers had seen their productivity and living standards fall steadily
 * the Taj Mahal and other wonders of the Mughal empire had been paid for by the mass of the people at a very high price
 * Aurangzeb wanted to extend mughal rule to the whole indian sibcontinent and believed it was his duty to ourify indian islam
 * after a reign of 50 years he conquered most of the subcontinent but the almost endless warfare drained the treasury and enlarged an inefficient bureaucracy and army without gaining corresponding increases in revenues to support them
 * growing autonomy of local leaders
 * Marattas- created internal rebellions in western india
 * Sikhs- new sect in the northwest

T
 * main: aqueducts were built to deliver water all over the nation.
 * Taj Mahal- beautiful tomb
 * new architecture ways

notes on Safavids: handwritten